Biography of Carl von Clausewitz

Biography of Carl von Clausewitz Free Online Research Papers Carl von Clausewitz: War and the Role of Military Philosophy Introduction: Carl von Clausewitz (1780-1831) is considered to be the father of war. His works can be considered as the corner stone for contemporary military theory. In this paper a biography is presented at first for a better understanding of his background and afterwards his basic ideas presented in his major work â€Å"On War† are presented. The significance and influence of these ideas nowadays is also examined under the scope of their presence in the military realm. Biography: Carl Phillip Gottfried von Clausewitz (1780-1831) was a Prussian soldier and intellectual. He came from a modest social background, and served as a practical field soldier where he gained extensive combat experience against the armies of the French Revolution and Napoleon. Von Clausewitz also served as a staff officer with political and military responsibilities at the very center of the Prussian state, and worked as a prominent military educator. Clausewitz first entered combat as a cadet at the age of 13, rose to the rank of Major-General at 38, married into the high nobility, and socialized in the intellectual circles of Berlin. He is most widely recognized as the author of On War, now an influential work of military philosophy in the Western world. On War (Vom Kriege) has been translated into virtually every major language and continues to have an influence on modern strategists in many fields. This essay will describe Clausewitz’ biographical profile, and then relate the significance of military philosophy to understanding the relationship between politics and the military.(Clausewitz official website) Biographical Background Carl Philipp Gottlieb von Clausewitz was born on 1 June 1780, near Magdeburg. Although the name had Polish origins, the family was German and patriotically Prussian. Despite their pretensions to nobility, however, the Clausewitzs were in fact of middle ­class origins. The elder Clausewitz had obtained a commission in the army of Frederick the Great, but was forcibly retired during Fredericks purge of non ­noble officers after the Seven Years War (1756 ­63). On the basis of his sons achievements, the familys nobility was finally confirmed by King Friedrich Wilhelm III in 1827 (Booker Stone 1985, pages 30-31) Clausewitz entered the Prussian army as a cadet at the age of twelve; he first saw combat at thirteen. After Prussia withdrew from the wars of the French Revolution in 1795, he spent five years in the more mundane routines of garrison duties. During this time he turned towards providing himself his own education. Expanding beyond strictly military subjects, Clausewitz developed a wide-ranging set of interests in art, science, and education. All of these interests were to have an impact on his later philosophical work. So successful were his self-educating efforts that in 1801 he was able to gain admission to the Institute for Young Officers in Berlin. There he came to the attention of the new director, Gerhard von Scharnhorst, a key figure in the Prussian state during the upheavals of the Napoleonic wars and Chief of the General Staff in 1806. Impressed by Clausewitzs ability, Scharnhorst became a sponsor, mentor, and close friend. Clausewitz graduated first in his class in 1803 and was rewarded with the position of military adjutant to the young Prince August, bringing him into close contact with the royal family. Scharnhorst and other Prussian military reformers had deeply influenced most of Clausewitzs basic historical, political, and military views. In general, their argument was that if the Prussian state wanted to survive it had to do the same that French Revolution had achieved whose astounding successes took place because it had tapped the energies of the French people. This would require radical social and political reforms in the Prussian state and army, both of which were blatant under the successors of Frederick the Great. Clausewitzs works therefore reflect a strong impulse towards social and military reform. After the devastating French victories over Austria and Russia in 1805, Prussia initiated the processes for a war in 1806. However the timing and the preparations of the Prussian mobilization were not sufficient, however and the nation’s moral was very low and with no motivation for such an aim. The Prussian forces were cracked down in humiliating defeats in the battles at Jena and Auerstadt. Clausewitz and Prince August were captured. In the peace settlement, Prussia lost half of its population and territory and became a French satellite. When he returned from imprisonment in 1808, he joined with Scharnhorst and other members of the reform movement united all together for a restructure in the Prussian society and army in order to be prepared for an inevitable new war with the French. The King, however, was quite reluctant and more concerned with maintaining his position in the much ­reduced Prussian state than heading for a nationalistic crusade. Clausewitzs disillusionment reached a peak when Prussia, allied with France, agreed to provide an army corps to Napoleon to assist in the 1812 invasion of Russia. Along with many other officers, he resigned from the Prussian service and accepted a commission in the Russian army. He served during the Russian retreat from the French forces, however, Prussias change of sides led, after some delay, to his reinstatement as a colonel in the Prussian army. Clausewitz participated in many key events of the War of Liberation (1813-1814), and served as an aide to General August von G neisenau, Field Marshal G.L. von Blà ¼chers chief of staff 1813-1815 and one of the principal leaders of Prussias military rebirth. In 1818, Clausewitz was promoted to general and became administrative head of the General War College in Berlin but had nothing to do with actual instruction at the school. During this time, he wrote the notes that would eventually form his collected works. Clausewitz returned to active duty with the army in 1830, when he was appointed commander of a group of artillery brigades stationed in eastern Prussia. When revolutions in Paris and Poland seemed to suggest a new general European war, he was appointed chief of staff to Field Marshal Gneisenau and the Army of Observation sent to the Polish border. Clausevitz died on 16 November 1831 at the age of fifty-one. The cause of his death was cholera which was transmitted to him while he was organizing a sanitary camp in the east , where he remained for that purpose after the aversion of war. On War His writings (On War represents only three of the ten volumes of his collected works) provide important first-person, historical, and analytical commentaries on key events of the dramatic Napoleonic era. Unlike many other great books, however, the ideas Clausewitz proposed have never been fully absorbed into the mainstream of historical texts. This is due partly to the depth and difficulty of the original work and to the unusual â€Å"dialectical character† of Clausewitzs approach (Cimbala 1992, pages 1-12). Nevertheless, it remains required reading in Americas intermediate-level and senior military schools, as well as in many civilian strategic studies programs and, increasingly, in business schools. Clausewitz’s aim was not to provide the reader with any solid and ever lasting answers nor prescribe solutions. He understood the concept that his future readers would face a strategic world unpredictably different in many aspects from his own. His objective is to help the reader develop his or her own strategic judgment in order to deal with the continuously changing strategic environment. It is this pedagogical quality of his writing that renders the works remarkable. The principal importance of Clausewitzs approach to strategic theory is its realism. This is not realism in the sense of cynicism about politics and brute power. Instead, there is realism in the way it describes the complicated and uncertain manner in which real-world events unfold, â€Å"taking into account both the frailties of human nature and the complexity of the physical and psychological world† (Booker Stone 1985, page 31). Influence The ideas posed by the Prussian military theorist Carl von Clausewitz (1780-1831) have come to deeply influence American military writing theoretical, and historical Since the close of the Vietnam War. On War, first published in 1832, was adopted as a key text at the Naval War College in 1976, the Air War College in 1978, the Army War College in 1981. It has always been central at the U.S. Armys School for Advanced Military Studies at Leavenworth (founded in 1983). The U.S. Marine Corpss brilliant little philosophical field manual FMFM 1: Warfighting (1989) is essentially a distillation of On War, and the Marine Corps Doctrinal Publications (1993) are equally reflect?ve of Clausewitzs basic concepts (Bassford 1994, 154-157). The sudden acceptability of Clausewitz in the wake of Vietnam is not difficult to account for, because Clausewitz seriously struggled with the sort of dilemma that American military leaders faced in the result of their defeat (Bassford 1994, pages 157-158). In what had come to be called in political war, the political and military components of the American war effort merged significantly. While it was difficult for the American military to criticize elected civilian leaders, it was just as difficult to take the blame for Vietnam upon themselves. Clausewitzs analysis proved highly relevant: The more powerful and inspiring the motives for war, the more closely will the military aims and the political objects of war coincide, and the more military and less political will war appear to be. On the other hand, the less intense the motives, the less will the military elements natural tendency to violence coincide with political directives. As a result, war will be driven further from its natural course, the political object will be more and more at variance with the aim of ideal war, and the conflict will seem increasingly political in character. (Bassford 1994, page 54) American soldiers denied to accompany with the idea that they have lost in the battlefield arena but they tended to admit that that the policy was badly formed and communicated with the result of them being in the place of not understanding their role in actually making it. By clarifying the interplay among the armed forces, government, and people, and by clearly describing the two sides of the civil-military relationship, Clausewitz offered a way out of this dilemma and into the future (Bassford 1994, pages 159-160). As such, Clausewitzs ideas underlie some of the most influential statements of the military lessons learned from the Vietnam debacle, including Colonel Harry Summerss â€Å"On Strategy: A Critical Analysis of the Vietnam War† and the Weinberger doctrine, first expressed by Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger in 1984 (Bassford 1994, 160-162). On War was not intended to provide a practical guide to commanders in the field. There are considerable misunderstandings about Clausewitz’ theory because of this misconception. To Clausewitz, war (as opposed to strategy or tactics) was neither an art nor a science. He argued that the object of science is knowledge and certainty, while the object of art is creative ability. Clausewitz saw tactics as more scientific in character, and strategy as something of an art. War, neither exclusive science or art, thus, is a form of â€Å"social intercourse† (Booker Stone 1985, page 55 ). Clausewitz occasionally compared it to commerce or litigation, but more usually to politics. War is permeated by intelligent forces. War is also an act of force to compel our enemy to do our will, but it is never unilateral. He compares it to a wrestling match -a contest between independent wills, where skill and creativity are no more important than personality, chance, emotion, and the various dynamics that characterize any human interaction. â€Å"When Clausewitz wrote that war may have a grammar of its own, but not its own logic, he meant that the logic of war, like politics, is the logic of social intercourse, not that of art or science. â€Å" (Bassford 1994, page 58) War and Policy According to Clausewitz, if war is to be an extension or tool of policy, then military leaders must be subordinate to political leaders and strategy must be subordinate to policy. The military instrument must be subordinated to the political leadership, but political leaders must understand its nature and limitations. Politicians must not attempt to use the instrument of war to achieve purposes for which it is unsuited. â€Å"It is the responsibility of military leaders to ensure that the political leadership understands the character and limitations of the military instrument.† One of the most important requirements of strategy in Clausewitzs view is that the leadership correctly establish the kind of war on which they are embarking. (Booker and Stone 1985, page 62) This is often understood to mean that leaders should rationally decide the kind of war that will be undertaken. In fact, the nature of any given war is beyond rational control: it is inherent in the situation an d in the spirit of the age. This is most evident in the French Revolution, and as well in Vietnam. Conclusions Clausewitzs ambition was to bridge the gap between theory and practice. However it can be conceived as very practical by the intellectual, too complex and vague by a politician and very theoretical in the battlefield by a soldier. The gap between theory and practice thus represents a dichotomy between the values and perceptions of scholars and soldiers. The f?rst where never g?ven the chance to be in the battlefield and the latter probably never went through complex research analysis on paper. By the same token, Vietnam veterans tend to see it as a textbook on what went wrong in their war. This points to the significance of this work, wherein Clausewitz insisted that personal experience was essential to any understanding of the phenomena of war. Personal experience is very important.. On War gave shape to the most important formulations of the final lessons learned from the Vietnam experience, as expressed in the Weinberger Doctrine (Bassford 1994, pages 172-175). Clausewitz’s theory cannot be interpreted from only one point of view but it should be appointed to each occasion separately according to the goals to be achieved. A great flexibility in interpretation and application of the theory is a fact which leaves a great gap in the concepts and which leaves the reader or the policy maker or the soldier responsible for the conclusions reached. Finally, as Clausewitz observes, â€Å"We see, therefore, that war is not merely a political act, but also a real political instrument, a continuation of political commerce, a carrying out of the same by other means† (Clausewitz). To win at war we must have unity between our government, our people, and our military and we must also exercise every other caution to insure that our efforts are sufficient to accomplish the goal. These efforts include not only such primary military strategies as insuring adequate numbers of troops but also insuring that we truly understand our enemy and its capabilities. Sources Bassford Christofer, 1994, â€Å"Clausewitz in English: The Reception of Clausewitz in Britain and America†,New York: Oxford University Press. Booker Christine and Stone Norman, 1985 , â€Å"Clausewitz: Philosopher of War†, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice ­Hall. Carl Von Clausewitz, Official Website, â€Å"Frequently asked Questions†, clausewitz.com/FAQs.htm#Who (accessed on 10 April 2010) Carl von Clausewitz, â€Å"On War†, clausewitz.com/readings/OnWar1873/BK1ch01.html (accesed on 20 May 2010) Cimbala J. Stephen, 1992, â€Å"Clausewitz and Escalation: Classical Perspective on Nuclear Strategy† London Frank Cass. 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Aristotle believes that man has a function in life Research Paper Example

Aristotle believes that man has a function in life Research Paper Example Aristotle believes that man has a function in life Paper Aristotle believes that man has a function in life Paper if the function of man is an activity of the soul in accordance with, or implying, a rational principle; and if we hold that the function an individual and of a good individual of the same kind e. g. f a harpist and of a good harpist and so on generally is generically the same, the latters distinctive excellence being attached to the name of the function (because the function of the harpist is to play the harp, but that of the good harpist is to play it well); and if we assume that the function of man is a kind of life, namely, an activity or series of actions of the soul, implying a rational principle; and if the function of a good man is to perform these well and rightly; and if every function is performed well when performed in accordance with its proper excellence: if this is all so, the conclusion is that the good for man is an activity of the soul in accordance with virtue, or if there are more kinds of virtue than one, in accordance with the best and most perfect kind. Essentially, what Aristotle means by this is that the overall human function is the souls activity together with reason. The activity of rational thought is what makes us human since no other living thing has the ability of reasoning. It is the ability to reason that all humans possess, but not all human beings function according to it (some are ignorant whilst others are unable to make logical choices). Also, all human actions taken together make up the good and everything we do throughout our lives contributes to the overall function. If we live well, according to the proper virtues, this will allow us to achieve what Aristotle calls eudaimonia (happiness). It is important that our virtuous actions are driven by the virtues and not just in line with the virtues. For example, a lawyer who argues for a poor man in order to gain a good reputation is not acting from virtue; he is acting in line with virtue. Aristotles argument in basic terms is as follows: a watch has a function and its goodness resides in that function; if man has a function then his goodness lies in performing that function well. For a watch to perform its function it uses the mechanisms within itself to achieve this; each of mans bodily organs have a function and so therefore man must have a function and this function is mans distinguishing feature: rationality. The chief good for man is a life following or implying a rational principle and to use that reason together with certain virtues. A problem with Aristotles belief is his claim that each of a mans bodily organs have a function and so therefore man must have a function. Not everything in the world has a clear function or a determined end. For example, a rose does not have a clear function other than the functions we think of for it (its beauty and its fragrance) but this does not add anything factual to it. In comparison, the function of our eyes give us the ability to perceive the world but this adds nothing factually to simply saying that our eyes causes us to perceive. When we speak about function we give it a normative status to causation but this is subjective to every individual. This works for all teleological ideas and it reflects our own interests. As for teleological arguments, they can only be defended, mainly, by religion and also by anthropomorphic ideas of nature. For example, Thomas Aquinas believed that natural law was not made up by humans but rather an unchanging rule or pattern which is there for human beings to discover. Aquinas says that natural law is so complex that it had to have been designed by a higher power and he stated that the only plausible answer is God. However, using God as the answer to the existence and aim of human beings is a weak argument. Jean-Paul Sartre believes in the concept that existence precedes essence and that the idea that existence precedes essence means that a human being, as well as human reality, exists prior to any concepts of values or morals. A person is born a blank slate and humanity has no universal, fixed values or ethics common to all of mankind. Since no essence or definition exists of what is means to be human, a person must form their own conception of existence by taking control of responsibility for their actions and choices. Therefore, a human being gains their essence through their own choices and actions. It is solely through the process of living that a person defines themselves. He uses the example of a paper knife saying that one cannot suppose that a man would produce a paper knife without knowing what it is for. A paper knife has essence before existence because it is designed for a specific purpose. Human beings do not; they have existence before essence because they are not designed with a specific purpose. Consequently, this challenges the function argument in that human beings do not have a certain end or a definite function; our function in life is made up as we go through life. Another problem with the function argument is presented by the is/ought fallacy. David Hume argued that there is a philosophical problem in believing that because something is the case it ought to be the case; he calls this the is/ought fallacy. For example, slavery exists but the fact that it is a reality does not mean that it ought to be. Abortion is a reality and some would argue that it is right to abort in certain circumstances but that does not mean we ought to. In this case, it may be a fact that humans possess reason but it does not logically follow that we ought to exercise our reason to live a fulfilled life. Professor Richard Norman says: why then from the fact that rational activity is distinctively human should it follow that we ought to live according to reason? An additional problem is, there are many distinctively human things that animals cannot do, why is reason the only characteristic Aristotle focuses upon? For example, we can gamble, give to charity, make art and become intoxicated by drugs but that does not mean that any of these are our functions. On what grounds does Aristotle use that animals cannot use reason? Surely what we call reason is no more than instinctive response but on a conscious level than any action in the animal kingdom. Aristotle could simply argue that these are all examples of humans not using their reason well because a tyrant, terrorist or gambler is using their reason but not in conjunction with their virtues. A good example of this would be the terrorist Osama bin Laden who thought he was doing good for the world where in reality he was creating devastation. In conclusion, although Aristotles belief of mans function in life gives us as human beings something to aim for (eudaimonia) it does not mean that man definitely has a function in life. Just because our organs work in a certain way does not mean our body must work towards something, and if our bodies are indeed working towards something then why must it be towards eudaimonia? As Sartre says, our function could be made up as we go through life. Why must we live life according to reason? Also, why must it just be reason we function upon? It is these questions that pose a problem to Aristotles function argument and therefore make his claim flawed.

What is the relationship between public administration and democratic Essay

What is the relationship between public administration and democratic governance - Essay Example In essence, one can establish that public organizations have highly static organizational structures more often than not mandated by a statute. Because of this static nature, leaders of public organizations are prone to be weak and lacking in discretion; this is used to explain the traditional leadership theory where employees or subordinates respond to the influence of little discretion employed by their leaders. Similarly, because of the seniority basis of reward systems public administration will older managers often take more up. These older managers are seen to exercise little discretion since they operate in different environmental contexts from their private sector counterparts, where environmental contexts are differentiated by market forces and interaction with legislations and legislatures (Pacek, 2010). It has been found that there is a dichotomy between public administration and politics where this has been evidenced by the fact that the division of authority and labour is branched out into between administrative and elected officials, which raises the planning ability along with democratic ability among public administrators. It is crucial to establish the relation that lies between public administration and politics as it has important implications on the institutional development as well as intellectual identity of public administration. One finding into this dichotomous relationship suggests that politics and public administration are two distinct, separate issues. This outlook defines politics as being about making policies, a process that encompasses a set of activities involving value choices. Public administration, on the other hand, is seen as a tool for interpreting articulated policies into actual outcomes through the application of dedicated skills and knowledge, forma lly referred to as administrative knowledge. In essence, politics serves up the duties for public administration but should not be

Security in E-Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 11

Security in E-Business - Essay Example Information is a significant business asset for any online enterprise. Therefore, protecting it from other competitors in the market is relevant for a business organization. Security for e-business can suitably protect information from a number of threats while focusing on the following perspectives (â€Å"Protecting†, 2008).  In the age of the Internet, it is quite easy to create, alter and transmit information. Besides, â€Å"the advancement in computing capacity and interconnectivity has presented a situation where small efforts can cause potentially large losses† (Otuteye, 2003). That is why concern for information security is a must for all small and big e-business organizations.  There are numerous ways to attack an e-business setup by various hackers, competitors and even displeased insiders. e-business enterprises should conduct evaluation processes on their technological capabilities including multiple areas (â€Å"Approach to e-business security†, 2 007),  Security in e-business is an ongoing process that has to deal with both existing and new threats. A good security program always ensures continuous improvement. It is without the doubt that security does add to the cost of business at initial phases. But in the long run, it can do tremendously well in saving money, earning a good reputation as well as customers for the company. After all, what matters most at the end of e-business or generally any business enterprise is the trust and credibility one builds and maintains with customers and business partners.

Determination of % Composition of Pennies Using Redox and Double Displacement (Precipitation) Reactions Essay Example for Free

Determination of % Composition of Pennies Using Redox and Double Displacement (Precipitation) Reactions Essay Introduction: Oxidation involves the gain of electrons of hydrogen or the loss of oxygen or decrease in oxidation state. If zinc completely reacts with HCL, then the theoretical yield of copper should be equivalent to the actual yield. Purpose: In this lab, we will determine the percent composition of a modern (post-1982) penny by using a strong acid to react and dissolve the zinc core, leaving only the copper coating. Once only copper remains, we will compare its mass to the entire mass of the penny to determine how much of a penny is copper and how much is zinc. 1. Obtain one 50.0 mL beaker, and label the beaker with your NAME and HOUR. 2. Obtain a penny dated 1982 or later. Wash the penny with soap and water to get it clean. 3. Using a triangular file to make FOUR oppositely-placed small grooves into the edge of the penny (the marks with be approximately 90 degrees apart. The grooves must be deep enough so that the zinc is exposed, but not so deep that the pennys mass is greatly affected. 4. Clean the top and bottom surface of the penny with steel wool until it’s shiny. Rinse the penny in acetone and dry it on paper towel. 5. Determine the mass of the penny on the balance, and record the mass in the table on the bottom of the page. Removed the penny from the balance using tweezers and place it in its beaker. 6. While wearing gloves, carefully pour 50 mL 3M HCl into the beaker. 7. Place your labeled beaker under the fume hood to react. Observe the effect the acid has on the copper outside of the penny. Questions to answer to help guide the development of procedures for the determination of the percent copper and zinc in pennies through titration and gravimetric techniques: 1. What is the weight of a post 1982 penny? 2.5 grams 2. What is the percent copper and zinc in a post 1982 penny? 97.5% zinc, 2.5% copper 3. How many grams of copper and zinc are in a post 1982 penny? 97.5 grams zinc, 2.5 grams copper 4. How many moles of copper and zinc are in post 1982 pennies? 5. Write a balanced reaction of zinc with HCl. Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g). 6. How many moles of HCl are needed to react completely with all of the zinc in a post 1982 penny? 2.5 7. In a procedure developed to determine the percent zinc in post 1982 pennies, 50 ml of an HCl solution was used to react (dissolve) all of the zinc in the penny. To ensure complete reaction, the solution contains twice as many moles of HCl that is actually needed. What concentration of HCl should be used? In the scenario described in problem 7, what is the amount (in moles) of excess (unreacted) HCl in solution? 9. How many moles of NaOH would be needed to completely react with all of the excess HCl determined in problem 8? 10. As described in problem 7, a procedure was developed to determine the percent zinc in post 1982 pennies. In that procedure 50 ml of an HCl was used to react (dissolve) all of the zinc in the penny. To ensure complete reaction, the solution contains twice as many moles of HCl that is actually needed. To determine the percent zinc in the penny, the excess (unreacted) HCl was titrated with NaOH. Determine the concentration of NaOH needed if you want to use approximately 25 mL of NaOH to titrate the excess HCl. 11. Write the balanced chemical reaction of zinc with HCl (same as problem 5). Is the product of this reaction soluble in aqueous solution? 12. Write the balanced chemical reaction of the product of the reaction described above (problem 11) with NaOH. Is the product of this reaction soluble in aqueous solution?

Organisation and Work of the People at BletchleyPark Essay -- Papers

Organisation and Work of the People at BletchleyPark In 1938, Chief of M.I.6; Admiral Sinclair purchased, at his own expense, the house that would later be converted into Bletchley Park. At the beginning of the war, Station X had two main goals. The first was to decode the signals sent by the Germans using simple encryption which were easily cracked. The second goal was the mission of cracking the Enigma coding system which the Germans used to send the more vital messages. The first arrivals of Station X were split into two categories; the first were the code breakers, mainly the academic group, which previously helped break codes. The second was the administrative team, which were mostly young girls in their late teens and/or early twenties. The first arrivals were soon joined by the mathematicians. At first, all the departments of Station X were crammed into the main house and some cottages. In September 1939, a wooden extension to the main house was constructed and was called Hut 4, which was later expanded to Hut 8. This housed the Naval section, which were at the time working on decoding non-Enigma messages, however, at the time of the expansion to Hut 8, the Naval section were starting to work on Enigma codes too. By the beginning of 1940, Station X was based around two huts. Hut 6 which would decode the messages then send them to Hut 3 which would translate the messages. When decoding in Hut 6 was finished, the messages were then sent to Hut 3, usually made no sense. Welchman had a system of processes in place within Hut 3, which would decode the Enigma messages when they were able to. Other Huts such as Hut 1 and .. ... Out of all the operations in Europe, none of them need more accurate information than D-Day. In May 1944, Station X discovered that the Germans were expecting a landing in Normandy, but expected that this would be a diversion to the main attack in Calais. Station X managed to find this out and the Allies then manage to adapt their plans. D-Day was originally planned for 4 June 1944 but was delayed due to bad weather conditions until 6 June. Station X was an invaluable source of information about the enemy forces for the last four years of the war. The Allied Commanders still had to achieve the victory, but they used the information that Station X submitted to aid them in their planning. Without the help of Station X, victory would not have been achieved as quickly as it did or may not have been achieved at all.

Dreams, Hopes and Life Expectation of the Korean Immigrants: Past and Present Essay

At the beginning of the 21st century, America is filled with millions of immigrants coming from all over the world. Immigrants dream about good life and good education, prosperity and even good friends. Many Korean immigrants dream about social stability and prosperity, well-paid job and social security. Immigration to America allows Koreans to be better positioned in the world and give them a chance to survive and prosper in different environments. Thesis Half a century ago, Korean immigrants came to America dreaming about material success and job opportunities, while today they dream about good education and human rights protection. At the beginning of the 20th century, there was a great gap between economic and political development of Korea and the USA. Korean immigrants came to America dreaming about their own house and a car, good healthcare services and good food. During the middle of the century, new production in America became customer oriented, and tried to meet the needs of a particular groups of customers. Similar to The Rogarshevskys or the Confino’s, many Korean immigrants coming to America supposed that through persistence, hard work and determination they could achieve high social status in the foreign land. These dreams were caused by economic instability and low social position affected Korea. Poverty in Korea was one of the main problems faced by the population. In the USA, Koreans dreamt about good healthcare and dental care. In Korea, political instability and totalitarian regime limited freedoms and rights of the citizens. These factors influenced dreams and expectations of the immigrants hoping for better life and government protection. Also, high rates of unemployment in Korea were more likely to be seen as a social problem than was poverty. In America, Koreans dreamt about their own businesses protected by laws and regulations. For instance, â€Å"millions of start-ups began in the past 20 years during a record economic expansion. But the number of minority-owned companies is growing 17% a year — twice the rate of all companies† (Hopkins 2002). In Korea, the human capital assumed that the inadequate incomes of the working poor were the result of characteristics of the labor market rather than the inadequacy of the poor. In America, Korean immigrants dreamt that working hard for many years they could earn for living and could send some money to their relatives in Korea (Lower east Side Tournament Museum 2007). Today, Korean immigrants come to America dreaming about great opportunities for personal development, social security, government protection, social freedoms and high paid job. For many immigrants, the American dream coincides with humans’ rights, equal opportunities and freedom. Many foreign students suppose that education in the USA opens new opportunities for immigrants helping them to â€Å"become equal† to native citizens and obtain professional skills. â€Å"But the higher level of education clearly gives Asians a leg up in the United States† (Hopkins 2002). Even today, Korean immigrants are satisfied with low paid jobs looking for government protection and support. According to statistical results, â€Å"Korean students comprise 10.4 percent of all international students in the USA. Smith revealed that the Korean government has plans to implement various reforms, including revising the college admission system starting in 2008† (Ten Percent Increase in Korean Students Studying 2007). In this very case, the dream about ‘good education’ is therefore a key element of improved intellectual potential and future career success. Another dream of Korean immigrants is a desire to achieve high social position and fair compensation for their job. From the social point, knowledge and career opportunities give the feeling of personal freedom and mobility so desirable for Koreans. Korean immigrants dream about freedom of choice and freedom of speech. To some extent, knowledge and stable social position embodies personal democracy (Ten Percent Increase in Korean Students Studying 2007). For instance, democracy and absence of physical oppression has allowed creativity and entrepreneurship to flourish. Also, career opportunities mean that everything is possible if you are energetic person who is driven by success. This dream coincides with the slogan of Independence. Although, the main features of ‘the Korean dream’ is the great faith in personal courage that help to realize dreams. In sum, the dreams of Korean immigrants have changed over time influenced by economic and social changes n Korea and new opportunities opened in the USA. Thus, a dream about stable social posit6ion and fair compensation, equal and democratic rights, good education and professional development are still vital. In America, knowledge gives total freedom and guarantees complete control over life. For Korean immigrants, education means absence of restrictions and compulsions, and in correlation with the idea of will, it is the opportunity to act as would be desirable. The immigration to America gives Koreans a chance and hope to change their life. In contrast to the previous age, modern immigration deals with psychological and social factors rather than political or economic. Works Cited 1. Hopkins, J. Asian business owners gaining clout. USA TODAY. 2002. 25 October 2007. 2. Lower east Side Tenement Museum. 2007. 25 October 2007. 3. Ten Percent Increase in Korean Students Studying in the USA. 2007. 25 October 2007.

Small Business, Innovation, and Public Policy in the Information Technology Industry

New firms have played a major role in fomenting innovation in information technology. A recent study by Greenwood and Jovanovic [1999] provide one dramatic illustration of these trends. These authors show that a group of â€Å"IT upstarts†Ã¢â‚¬â€firms specializing in computer and communications technologies that went public after 1968—now account for over 4% of the total U. S. equity market capitalization. While some of this growth has come at the expense of incumbent information technology firms, the new market value and technological spillovers created by these new businesses appear to be substantial. The role of new firms in the information technology industries has rekindled interest in the relationship between firm characteristics and innovation. Are small businesses more innovative in general? Are high-technology start-ups particularly important? If the answer to either of these questions is yes, how should policymakers seek to encourage these firms? The relationship between innovation and firm characteristics has been one of the most researched topics in the empirical industrial organization literature. To summarize these discussions and draw some implications for policymakers in a few pages is thus a daunting challenge! Consequently, this essay takes a quite selective approach to these issues. First, I very briefly summarize the academic literature on the relationship between firm size and innovation. This work suggests that there appears to be a very weak relationship between firm size, the tendency to undertake R&D, and the effectiveness of research spending. Small businesses, in aggregate, do not appear to be particularly research-intensive or innovative. I then turn to examining one subset of small businesses that do appear to excel at innovation: venture capital-backed start-ups. I highlight some of the venture-backed firms’ contributions. I also discuss why the success of such firms is not accidental. In particular, I highlight the key problems that the financing of small innovative companies pose, as well as some of the key mechanisms that venture investors employ to guide the innovation process. It is not surprising, then, that venture capital investments are concentrated in information technology industries, and that they appear to pur innovation. Finally, I consider one set of policy issues related to small firms and innovation. In particular, I discuss some recent changes in the intellectual property protection system that appear to favor larger firms. I then argue that this may be an area that would reward increased attention by policy-makers interested in helping innovative small businesses in information technology a nd other high-technology industries. 1. Small Business and Innovation A substantial but largely inconclusive literature examines the relationship between firm size and innovation. These studies have been handicapped by the difficulty of measuring innovative inputs and outputs, as well as the challenges of creating a sample that is free of selection biases and other estimation problems. While a detailed review of this literature is beyond the scope of this piece, the interested reader can turn to surveys by Baldwin and Scott [1987] and Cohen and Levin [1989]. Much of the work in this literature has sought to relate measures of innovative discoveries—whether R&D expenditures, patents, inventions, or other measures—to firm size. Initial studies were undertaken using the largest manufacturing firms; more recent works have employed larger samples and more disaggregated data (e. g. , studies employing data on firms’ specific lines of business). Despite the improved methodology of recent studies, the results have remained inconclusive: even when a significant relationship between firm size and innovation has been found, it has had little economic significance. For instance, Cohen, Levin, and Mowery [1987] concluded that a doubling of firm size only increased the ratio of R&D to sales by 0. 2%. One of the relatively few empirical regularities emerging from studies of technological innovation is the critical role played by small firms and new entrants in certain industries. The role of entrants—typically de novo start-ups—in emerging industries was highlighted, for instance, in the pioneering case study-based research of Jewkes, Sawers, and Stillerman [1958]. Acs and Audretsch [1988] examined this question more systematically. They documented that the contribution of small firms to innovation was a function of industry conditions: the contribution was greatest in immature industries which were relatively unconcentrated. These findings suggested that entrepreneurs and small firms often played a key role in observing where new technologies could be applied to meet customer needs, and rapidly introducing products. These patterns are also predicted in several models of technological competition, many of which were reviewed in Reinganum [1989], as well in several analyses in the organizational behavior literature [several were discussed in Henderson, 1993]. The 1990s have seen several dramatic illustrations of these patterns. Two potentially revolutionary areas of technological innovation—biotechnology and the Internet—were pioneered by smaller entrants. Neither established drug companies nor mainframe computer manufacturers were pioneers in developing these technologies. By and large, small firms did not invent the key genetic engineering techniques or Internet protocols. Rather, the bulk of the enabling technologies were developed with Federal funds at academic institutions and research laboratories. It was the small entrants, however, who were the first to seize upon the commercial opportunities. 2. Venture Capital and Innovation One set of small firms, however, appear to have had a disproportionate effect on innovation: those backed by venture capitalists. Venture capital can be defined as equity or equity-linked investments in young, privately held companies, where the investor is a financial intermediary is typically actively as a director, advisor or even manager of the firm. ) While venture capitalists fund only a few hundred of the nearly one million businesses begun in the United States each year, these firms have a disprop ortionate impact on technological innovation. This claim is supported by a variety of evidence. One measure, while crude, is provided by the firms which â€Å"graduate† to the public marketplace. In the past two decades, about one-third of the companies going public (weighted by value) have been backed by venture investors. A second way to assess these claims is to examine which firms have been funded. Venture capitalists, while contributing a relatively modest share of the total financing, provided critical early capital and guidance to many of the new firms in such emerging industries as biotechnology, computer networking, and the Internet. In some cases, these new firms—utilizing the capital, expertise, and contacts provided by their venture capital investors—established themselves as market leaders. In other instances, they were acquired by larger corporations, or entered into licensing arrangements with such concerns. Consider, for instance, the biotechnology industry. Venture capitalists provided only a small fraction of the external financing raised in the industry, and only 450 out of 1500 firms have received venture financing through 1995. These venture-backed firms, however, accounted for over 85% of the patents awarded and drugs approved for marketing. Similarly, venture capitalists have aggressively backed firms in information technology industries, which accounted for 60% of all venture disbursements in 1998. These have included many of the most successful firms in the industry, including Amazon. com, Cisco Systems, Microsoft, Intel, and Yahoo. A final way to assess the impact of the venture industry is to consider the impact of venture backed firms. Survey results suggest that these investments have powerful impacts. For instance, a mid-1996 survey by the venture organization Kleiner, Perkins, Caufield, and Byers found that the firms that the partnership had financed since its inception in 1971 had created 131,000 jobs, generated $44 billion in annual revenues, and had $84 billion in market capitalization [Peltz, 1996]. While Kleiner, Perkins is one of the most successful venture capital groups, the results are suggestive of the impact of the industry. More systematically, Kortum and Lerner [1998] examining the influence of venture capital on patented inventions in the United States across twenty industries over three decades. They address concerns about causality in several ways, including exploiting a 1979 policy shift that spurred venture capital fundraising. They find that the amount of venture capital activity in an industry significantly increases its rate of patenting. While the ratio of venture capital to R&D has averaged less than 3% in recent years, the estimates suggest that venture capital accounts for about 15% of industrial innovations. They address concerns that these results are an artifact of the use of patent counts by demonstrating similar patterns when other measures of innovation are used in a sample of 530 venture-backed and non-venture-backed firms. Lending particular relevance to an examination of these firms is the tremendous boom in the U. S. venture capital industry in recent years. The pool of venture partnerships has grown ten-fold, from under $4 billion in 1978 to about $75 billion at the end of 1998. Venture capital’s recent growth has outstripped that of almost every class of financial product. It is worth underscoring that the tremendous success of venture-backed firms has not happened by accident. The interactions between venture capitalists and the entrepreneurs that they finance are often complex. They can be understood, however, as a response to the challenges that the financing of emerging growth companies pose. Entrepreneurs rarely have the capital to see their ideas to fruition and must rely on outside financiers. Meanwhile, those who control capital—for instance, pension fund trustees and university overseers—are unlikely to have the time or expertise to invest directly in young or restructuring firms. Some entrepreneurs might turn to other financing sources, such as bank loans or the issuance of public stock, to meet their needs. But because of four key factors, some of the most potentially profitable and exciting firms would be unable to access financing if venture capital did not exist. The first factor, uncertainty, is a measure of the array of potential outcomes for a company or project. The wider the dispersion of potential outcomes, the greater the uncertainty. By their very nature, young companies are associated with significant levels of uncertainty. Uncertainty surrounds whether the research program or new product will succeed. The response of firm’s rivals may also be uncertain. High uncertainty means that investors and entrepreneurs cannot confidently predict what the company will look like in the future. Uncertainty affects the willingness of investors to contribute capital, the desire of suppliers to extend credit, and the decisions of a firm’s managers. If managers are averse to taking risks, it may be difficult to induce them to make the right decisions. Conversely, if entrepreneurs are overoptimistic, then investors want to curtail various actions. Uncertainty also affects the timing of investment. Should an investor contribute all the capital at the beginning, or should he stage the investment through time? Investors need to know how information-gathering activities can address these concerns and when they should be undertaken. The second factor, asymmetric information (or information disparities), is distinct from uncertainty. Because of his day-to-day involvement with the firm, an entrepreneur knows more about his company’s prospects than investors, suppliers, or strategic partners. Various problems develop in settings where asymmetric information is prevalent. For instance, the entrepreneur may take detrimental actions that investors cannot observe: perhaps undertaking a riskier strategy than initially suggested or not working as hard as the investor expects. The entrepreneur might also invest in projects that build up his reputation at the investors’ expense. Asymmetric information can also lead to selection problems. The entrepreneur may exploit the fact that he knows more about the project or his abilities than investors do. Investors may find it difficult to distinguish between competent entrepreneurs and incompetent ones. Without the ability to screen out unacceptable projects and entrepreneurs, investors are unable to make efficient and appropriate decisions. The third factor affecting a firm’s corporate and financial strategy is the nature of its assets. Firms that have tangible assets—e. g. , machines, buildings, land, or physical inventory—may find financing easier to obtain or may be able to obtain more favorable terms. The ability to abscond with the firm’s source of value is more difficult when it relies on physical assets. When the most important assets are intangible, such as trade secrets, raising outside financing from traditional sources may be more challenging. Market conditions also play a key role in determining the difficulty of financing firms. Both the capital and product markets may be subject to substantial variations. The supply of capital from public investors and the price at which this capital is available may vary dramatically. These changes may be a response to regulatory edicts or shifts in investors’ perceptions of future profitability. Similarly, the nature of product markets may vary dramatically, whether due to shifts in the intensity of competition with rivals or in the nature of the customers. If there is exceedingly intense competition or a great deal of uncertainty about the size of the potential market, firms may find it very difficult to raise capital from traditional sources. Venture capitalists have a variety of mechanisms at their disposal to address these changing factors. They will invest in stages, often at increasing valuations. Each refinancing is tied to a re-evaluation of the company and its prospects. In these financings, they will employ complex financing mechanisms, often hybrid securities like convertible preferred equity or convertible debt. These financial structures can potentially screen out overconfident or under-qualified entrepreneurs and reduce the venture capitalists’ risks. They will also shift the mixture of investors from whom a firm acquires capital. Each source—private equity investors, corporations, and the public markets—may be appropriate for a firm at different points in its life. Venture capitalists provide not only introductions to these other sources of capital but certification—a â€Å"stamp of approval† that addresses the concerns of other investors. Finally, once the investment is made, they monitor and work with the entrepreneurs to ensure that the right operational and strategic decisions are made and implemented. 3. Innovation, Small Business, and Public Policy If small firms—or even some subset of small firms—are playing an important role in the innovation process, one policy goal should be to address threats to their future development. This is particularly true of threats that have been created by misguided government policies, however good the intentions of their designers. The area that I believe deserves particular attention relates to the key mechanism for protecting intellectual property, namely patents. The U. S. patent system has undergone a profound shift over the past fifteen years. The strength of patent protection has been dramatically bolstered, and both large and small firms are devoting considerably more effort to seeking patent protection and defending their patents in the courts. Many in the patent community—U. S. Patent and Trademark Office officials, the patent bar, and corporate patent staff—have welcomed these changes. But viewed more broadly, the reforms of the patent system and the consequent growth of patent litigation have created a substantial â€Å"innovation tax† that afflicts some of America's most important and creative small firms. Almost all formal disputes involving issued patents are tried in the Federal judicial system. The initial litigation must be undertaken in a district court. Prior to 1982, appeals of patent cases were heard in the appellate courts of the various circuits. These differed considerably in their interpretation of patent law. Because few appeals of patent cases were heard by the Supreme Court, substantial differences persisted, leading to widespread â€Å"forum shopping† by litigants. In 1982, the U. S. Congress established a centralized appellate court for patent cases, the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit (CAFC). As Robert Merges [1992] observes, While the CAFC was ostensibly formed strictly to unify patent doctrine, it was no doubt hoped by some (and expected by others) that the new court would make subtle alterations in the doctrinal fabric, with an eye to enhancing the patent system. To judge by results, that is exactly what happened. The CAFC's rulings have been more â€Å"pro-patent† than the previous courts. For instance, the circuit courts had affirmed 62% of district court findings of patent infringement in the three decades prior to the creation of the CAFC, while the CAFC in its first eight years affirmed 90% of such decisions [Koenig, 1980; Harmon, 1991]. The strengthening of patent law has not gone unnoticed by corporations. Over the past decade, patents awarded to U. S. corporations have increased by 50%. Furthermore, the willingness of firms to litigate patents has increased considerably. The number of patent suits instituted in the Federal courts has increased from 795 in 1981 to 1553 in 1993; adversarial proceedings within the U. S. Patent and Trademark Office have increased from 246 in 1980 to 684 in 1992 [Administrative Office, various years; U. S. Department of Commerce, various years]. My recent analysis of litigation by firms based in Middlesex County, Massachusetts suggests that six intellectual property-related suits are filed for every one hundred patent awards to corporations. These suits lead to significant expenditures by firms. Based on historical costs, I estimate that patent litigation begun in 1991 will lead to total legal expenditures (in 1991 dollars) of over $1 billion, a substantial amount relative to the $3. billion spent by U. S. firms on basic research in 1991. [These findings are summarized in Lerner, 1995. ] Litigation also leads to substantial indirect costs. The discovery process is likely to require the alleged infringer to produce extensive documentation, time-consuming depositions from employees, and may generate unfavorable publicity. Its officers and directors may also be held i ndividually liable. As firms have realized the value of their patent positions, they have begun reviewing their stockpiles of issued patents. Several companies, including Texas Instruments, Intel, Wang Laboratories, and Digital Equipment, have established groups that approach rivals to demand royalties on old patent awards. In many cases, they have been successful in extracting license agreements and/or past royalties. For instance, Texas Instruments is estimated to have netted $257 million in 1991 from patent licenses and settlements resulting from their general counsel's aggressive enforcement policy [Rosen, 1992]. Particularly striking, practitioner accounts suggest, has been the growth of litigation–and threats of litigation–between large and small firms. This trend is disturbing. While litigation is clearly a necessary mechanism to defend property rights, the proliferation of such suits may be leading to transfers of financial resources from some of the youngest and most innovative firms to more established, better capitalized concerns. Even if the target firm feels that it does not infringe, it may choose to settle rather than fight. It either may be unable to raise the capital to finance a protracted court battle, or else may believe that the publicity associated with the litigation will depress the valuation of its equity. In addition, these small firms may reduce or alter their investment in R. For instance, a 1990 survey of 376 firms found that the time and expense of intellectual property litigation was a major factor in the decision to pursue an innovation for almost twice as many firms with under 500 employees than for larger businesses [Koen, 1990]. These claims are also supported by my study [1995] of the patenting behavior of new biotechnology firms that have different litigation costs. I showed that firms with high litigation costs are less likely to patent in subclasses with many other awards, particularly those of firms with low litigation costs. These effects have been particularly pernicious in emerging industries. Chronically strained for resources, USPTO officials are unlikely to assign many patent examiners to emerging technologies in advance of a wave of applications. As patent applications begin flowing in, the USPTO frequently finds the retention of the few examiners skilled in the new technologies difficult. Companies are likely to hire away all but the least able examiners. These examiners are valuable not only for their knowledge of the USPTO examination procedure in the new technology, but also for their understanding of what other patent applications are in process but not awarded. (U. S. patent applications are held confidential until time of award. ) Many of the examinations in emerging technologies are as a result performed under severe time pressures by inexperienced examiners. Consequently, awards of patents in several critical new technologies have been delayed and highly inconsistent. These ambiguities have created ample opportunities for firms that seek to aggressively litigate their patent awards. The clearest examples of this problem are the biotechnology and software industries. In the latter industry, examples abound where inexperienced examiners have granted patents on technologies that were widely diffused but not previously patented [see, for instance, the many examples chronicled in Aharonian, 1999]. It might be asked why policy-makers have not addressed the deleterious effects of patent policy changes. The difficulties that Federal officials have faced in reforming the patent system are perhaps best illustrated by the efforts to simplify one of the most arcane aspects of our patent system, the â€Å"first-to-invent† policy. With the exception of the Philippines and Jordan, all other nations award patents to firms that are the first to file for patent protection. The U. S. , however, has clung to the first-to-invent system. In the U. S. , a patent will be awarded to the party who can demonstrate (through laboratory notebooks and other evidence) that he was the initial discoverer of a new invention, even if he did not file for patent protection until after others did (within certain limits). A frequently invoked argument for the first-to-invent system is that this provides protection for small inventors, who may take longer to translate a discovery into a completed patent application. While this argument is initially compelling, the reality is quite different. Disputes over priority of invention are resolved through a proceeding before the USPTO's Board of Patent Appeals and Interferences known as an interference. The Board will hold a hearing to determine which inventor first made the discovery. The interference process has been characterized as â€Å"an archaic procedure, replete with traps for the unwary† [Calvert, 1980]. These interferences consume a considerable amount of resources: the adjudication of the average interference is estimated to cost over one hundred thousand dollars [Kingston, 1992]. Yet in recent years, in only about 55 cases annually has the party that was second-to-file been determined to have been the first-to-invent [Calvert and Sofocleous, 1992]. Thus, the U. S. persists in this complex, costly, and idiosyncratic system in order to reverse the priority of 0. 3% of the patent applications filed each year. But this system has proved very resistant to change. At least since 1967, proposals have been unsuccessfully offered to shift the U. S. to a first-to-file system. As recently as January 1994, USPTO Commissioner Bruce Lehman was forced to withdraw such a proposal. While the voices raised in protest over his initiative—as those opposing e arlier reform attempts—were led by advocates for small inventors, it is difficult not to conclude that the greatest beneficiary from the first-to-file system is the small subset of the patent bar that specializes in interference law. It may be thought puzzling that independent inventors, who are generally unable to afford costly litigation, have been so active in supporting the retention of â€Å"first-to-invest. † A frequently voiced complaint is that small inventors take longer to prepare patent applications, and hence would lose out to better-financed rivals, in a â€Å"first-to-file† world. This argument appears to be specious for several reasons. First, economically important discoveries are typically the subject of patent filings in a number of countries. Thus, there is already an enormous pressure to file quickly. Second, the recent reforms of the U. S. system have created a new provisional patent application, which is much simpler to file than a full-fledged application. Finally, as former Commissioner Lehman notes, many most vocal independent inventors opposing patent reform are â€Å"weekend hobbyists . . . [rather than representatives of] knowledge-based industries† [Chartrand, 1995]. As this case study suggests, the failure of Federal reform efforts is due to several factors. First, the issues are complex, and sometimes difficult to understand. Simplistic claims frequently cloud these discussions. For instance, because firms use patents to protect innovations, it is frequently argued that a stronger patent system will lead to more innovation. Second, the people with the greatest economic stake in retaining a litigious and complex patent system—the patent bar—have proven to be a very powerful lobby. The efforts of the highly specialized interference bar to retain â€Å"first to invent† is a prime example. Finally, the top executives of technology-intensive firms have not mounted an effective campaign around these issues. The reason may be that the companies who are most adversely affected are small, capital-constrained firms who do not have time for major lobbying efforts. Thus, an important policy concern is that we avoid taking steps in the name of increasing competitiveness that actually interfere with the workings of innovative small businesses. The 1982 reform of the patent litigation process appears to have had exactly this sort of unintended consequence. References Zoltan J. Acs and David B. Audretsch, â€Å"Innovation in Large and Small Firms: An Empirical Analysis,† American Economic Review, 78 (1988), pp. 78-690. Administrative Office of the United States Courts, Annual Report of the Director, Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office, various years. Gregory Aharonian, â€Å"Internet Patent News Service,† http://metalab. unc. edu/patents/ipnsinfo. html, 1999. William L. Baldwin and John T. Scott, Market Structure and Technological Change, Chur, Switzerland: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1987. Ian A. Calvert, â€Å"An Overview of Interference Practice,† Journal of the Patent Office Society, 62 (1980), pp. 290-308. Ian A. Calvert and Michael Sofocleous, â€Å"Interference Statistics for Fiscal Years 1989 to 1991,† Journal of the Patent and Trademark Office Society, 74 (1992), pp. 822-826. Sabra Chartrand, â€Å"Facing High-Tech Issues, New Patents Chief in Reinventing a Staid Agency,† New York Times, July 14, 1995, p. 17. Michael P. Chu, â€Å"An Antitrust Solution to the New Wave of Predatory Patent Infringement Litigation,† William and Mary Law Review, 33 (1992), pp. 1341-68. Wesley M. Cohen and Richard C. Levin, Empirical Studies of Innovation and Market Structure,† in Richard Schmalensee and Robert D. Willig, editors, Handbook of Industrial Organization, New York: North-Holland, 1989, volume II, chapter 18. Wesley M. Cohen, Richard C. Levin, and David C. Mowery, â€Å"Firm Size and R&D Intensity: A Re-Examination,† Journal of Industrial Economics, 35 (1987), pp. 543-563. Paul A. Gompers and Josh Lerner, The Venture Capital Cycle, Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999. Jeremy Greenwood and Boyan Jovanovic, â€Å"The IT Revolution and the Stock Market,† American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings, 89 (1999) forthcoming. Robert L. Harmon, Patents and the Federal Circuit, Washington: Bureau of National Affairs, 1991. Rebecca Henderson, â€Å"Underinvestment and Incompetence as Responses to Radical Innovation: Evidence from the Photolithographic Alignment Equipment Industry,† Rand Journal of Economics, 24 (1993), pp. 248-270. Michael C. Jensen, â€Å"Presidential Address: The Modern Industrial Revolution, Exit, and the Failure of Internal Control Systems,† Journal of Finance, 48 (1993), pp. 831-880. John Jewkes, David Sawers, and Richard Stillerman, The Sources of Invention, London: St. Martins Press, 1958. William Kingston, â€Å"Is the United States Right about ‘First-to-Invent'? ,† European Intellectual Property Review, 7 (1992), pp. 23-226. Mary S. Koen, Survey of Small Business Use of Intellectual Property Protection: Report of a Survey Conducted by MO-SCI Corporation for the Small Business Administration, Rolla, Missouri: MO-SCI Corp. , 1990. Gloria K. Koenig, Patent Invalidity: A Statistical and Substantive Analysis, New York: Clark Boardman, 1980. Samuel Kortum a nd Josh Lerner, â€Å"Does Venture Capital Spur Innovation? ,† National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 6846, 1998. Josh Lerner, â€Å"Patenting in the Shadow of Competitors,† Journal of Law and Economics, 38 (1995), pp. 63-595. Josh Lerner, â€Å"Small Businesses, Innovation, and Public Policy,† in Zoltan Acs, editor, Are Small Firms Important? , New York: Kluwer Academic Publishing, 1999, forthcoming. Josh Lerner and Robert Merges, â€Å"The Control of Strategic Alliances: An Empirical Analysis of Biotechnology Collaborations,† Journal of Industrial Economics (Special Issue on â€Å"Inside the Pin Factory: Empirical Studies Augmented by Manager Interviews. †), 46 (1998), pp. 125-156. Robert P. Merges, Patent Law and Policy, Charlottesville: Michie Company, 1992. National Venture Capital Association, 1999 National Venture Capital Association Yearbook, Arlington, Virginia: National Venture Capital Association, 1999. Michael Peltz, â€Å"High Tech’s Premier Venture Capitalist,† Institutional Investor, 30 (June 1996), pp. 89-98. Jennifer R. Reinganum, â€Å"The Timing of Innovation: Research, Development and Diffusion,† in Richard Schmalensee and Robert D. Willig, editors, Handbook of Industrial Organization, New York: North-Holland, 1989, volume I, chapter 14. Miriam Rosen, â€Å"Texas Instruments' $250 Million-a-Year Profit Center,† American Lawyer, 14 (March 1992), pp. 56-63.

Free Essays on Pearl S. Buck

Pearl Buck The person in this research paper is Pearl S. Buck. She was a famous writer on books about her and what is going on around the world. She lived most of her life in China, and some in the United States. Pearl S. Buck was born in Hillsboro, West Virginia. She spent her youth in China, in Chin kiang on the Yangtze River. She learned to speak Chinese before she could speak English. Her parents were missionaries. Buck's father, Absalom Sydenstricker, was a very smart man who spent years translating the Bible from Greek to Chinese. Her mother, Caroline Stulting, had traveled widely in her youth and loved literature. Buck's life in China wasn’t very good. When she was only a child, her family was forced to flee from the rebel forces of the Boxer Rebellion.1 After being taught by her mother and a Chinese tutor, who was a Confucian scholar, Buck was sent to a boarding school in Shanghai at the age of fifteen. She also worked for the Door of Hope, a shelter for Chinese slave girls. Buck continued her education in the United States at Randolph-Macon Woman's College in Virginia, and studied psychology there. After graduating in 1914 she returned to China as a teacher for the Presbyterian Board of Missions. Her mother was very ill and Buck had to spend the next two years taking care of her. She married Dr. John Lossing Buck, an agricultural expert, who loved his work. When her mother became better, they moved into a village in the North China.2 Buck worked as a teacher and interpreter for her husband and traveled through the countryside. During this period China took steps toward liberal reform, also through the May 4th Movement of 1917 to 1921. In the 1920s the Bucks moved to Nan king, where she taught English and American literature at the university. In 1924 she returned to the United States to seek medical care for he first daughter who was mentally retarded. In 1926 she received her M.A. in literature from Cornell Univer... Free Essays on Pearl S. Buck Free Essays on Pearl S. Buck Pearl Buck The person in this research paper is Pearl S. Buck. She was a famous writer on books about her and what is going on around the world. She lived most of her life in China, and some in the United States. Pearl S. Buck was born in Hillsboro, West Virginia. She spent her youth in China, in Chin kiang on the Yangtze River. She learned to speak Chinese before she could speak English. Her parents were missionaries. Buck's father, Absalom Sydenstricker, was a very smart man who spent years translating the Bible from Greek to Chinese. Her mother, Caroline Stulting, had traveled widely in her youth and loved literature. Buck's life in China wasn’t very good. When she was only a child, her family was forced to flee from the rebel forces of the Boxer Rebellion.1 After being taught by her mother and a Chinese tutor, who was a Confucian scholar, Buck was sent to a boarding school in Shanghai at the age of fifteen. She also worked for the Door of Hope, a shelter for Chinese slave girls. Buck continued her education in the United States at Randolph-Macon Woman's College in Virginia, and studied psychology there. After graduating in 1914 she returned to China as a teacher for the Presbyterian Board of Missions. Her mother was very ill and Buck had to spend the next two years taking care of her. She married Dr. John Lossing Buck, an agricultural expert, who loved his work. When her mother became better, they moved into a village in the North China.2 Buck worked as a teacher and interpreter for her husband and traveled through the countryside. During this period China took steps toward liberal reform, also through the May 4th Movement of 1917 to 1921. In the 1920s the Bucks moved to Nan king, where she taught English and American literature at the university. In 1924 she returned to the United States to seek medical care for he first daughter who was mentally retarded. In 1926 she received her M.A. in literature from Cornell Univer...

All About Any in French

All About Any in French The English word any has numerous French translations, depending on what it means and whether it is used as an adjective, pronoun, or adverb. Any = No Matter Which adjective: nimporte quel You can have any book | Tu peux avoir nimporte quel livreAny chair will do | Nimporte quelle chaise fera laffaireIll watch any programs | Je regarde nimporte quels programmes pronoun: nimporte lequel You can have any one (of them) | Tu peux avoir nimporte lequelAny (one) will do | Nimporte laquelle fera laffaireIll watch any one (of them) | Je regarde nimporte lesquels Any = Some adjective: partitive article Do you have any money? | As-tu de largent  ?Do you want any bread?  | Veux-tu du pain  ?Are there any survivors?  | Y a-t-il des survivants  ? pronoun: adverbial pronoun en Do you have any? | En as-tu  ?Do you want any?  | En veux-tu  ?Are there any? | Y en a-t-il  ? Any = Each and Every adjective: tout Any child can learn French | Tout enfant peut apprendre le franà §aisAny student who talks in class will be punished  | Tout à ©là ¨ve qui parle en classe sera puniAny other response would have been more appropriate  | Toute autre rà ©ponse aurait à ©tà © plus approprià ©e Not Any = None adjective: pas de or, more emphatically, the negative adjective ne... aucun He doesnt have any proof | Il na pas de preuve / Il na aucune preuveI dont have any sisters | Je nai pas de sÅ“ur / Je nai aucune sÅ“urThere isnt any excuse | Il ny a pas dexcuse / Il ny a aucune excuse pronoun: ne... pas or ne... aucun with en We dont want any | Nous nen voulons pas / Nous nen voulons aucunI dont have any | Je nen ai pas / Je nen ai aucuneThere isnt any | Il ny en a pas / Il ny en a aucune Not Any More plus maintenant or ne... plus Do you eat fish? Not any more | Tu manges du poisson  ? Plus maintenantI dont have it any more | Je ne lai plusHe wont help any more  | Il naidera plus Any = Somewhat, a Bit un peu Do you feel any happier? | Te sens-tu un peu plus heureux  ?Is he any taller? | Est-il un peu plus grand  ?Are you any more athletic than David?  | Es-tu un peu plus sportif que David  ?

Inventory Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Inventory Management - Essay Example that idle stock that is held by an entity for fulfilling future transactions, then considering planes as inventory at London’s Heathrow Airport, then, the head of operations have various ways of improving the inventory flow into the airport. Reducing the time spent by the planes in the run way is such one option. Through the reduction of the time spent by individual plane on the runway, an opportunity is created to increase the number of planes landing and taking off, consequently improving the rate of passenger arrival and departure, which goes a long way in increasing the cash flow into the airport and consequently the revenues earned (Tempelmeier, 24). Scheduling planes for arrival and departure is yet another aspect of inventory management for planes, which serves to ensure that the planes does not compete for available resources such as runways or the passengers, when all of them arrives or wants to depart at the same time. Having a system, which clearly indentifies the w hereabouts of the planes, is another aspect of inventory management, which helps in communicating with the plane, reducing the chances of delays (Tempelmeier, 29). Considering the passengers as a unit of inventory, then, managing them becomes necessary to ensure there is effective arrival and departure from the airport, without having any delays or time wastage. The management of passengers as inventory requires the scheduling of arrival and departure time differently, to ensure that there is no congestion of passengers in the airport, which is likely to cause confusions and delays in clearances (Tempelmeier, 16). Designing different entry and exit routes for the passengers to and from the airport will serve to ensure that the arriving passengers and the boarding ones do not meet at any point within the airport, effectively improving the efficiency of traffic flow. Scheduling the earliest and the latest time that passengers should arrive in the airport is another aspect of inventory

Business to Business Marketing Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 3

Business to Business Marketing - Assignment Example Being based in Cambridge, TCL effectively meets the needs of the small and large enterprises around the town. However, as a result of the decreased revenue due to the economic downturn, some of the clients who are outside Cambridge may opt to cut on their traveling expenses. In this regard, it is essential for David and Angela to open more branches in cities such as Birmingham, Manchester, Newcastle, and Liverpool. In this way, TCL will reduce the costs incurred by its clients while traveling to Cambridge. It is also essential for the company to centralize its operations by ensuring that the Designers and Account Executives work in an established office. In this way, the company management will effectively monitor the performance of its employees. In addition, the TCL Company will emulate the culture of teamwork that is vital for the sustainable growth of any organization.  Currently, TCL adopts word-of-mouth as its primary promotion strategy. Even though this strategy has resulted in an increased number of customers, the current economic climate may negatively affect this strategy. This is based on the fact that some of the clients may lack financial ability to emulate the services offered by TCL thus making it difficult to communicate the significance of the services to other potential clients. This means that even though TCL has significantly relied on word-of-mouth in its promotion, the company should adopt social media to promote its products. In this way, it will effectively attract new customers especially those who regularly use social media during their buying process. In addition, the company should improve its website by allocating at least 15% of its revenue to ensure that it can easily communicate with its clients regardless of where they are located. It is also vital for TCL to collaborate with its clients in sponsoring social and cultural events in cities such as Bristol, Portsmouth among others. During such occasions, the company should fix ba nners that depict all the services it offers and their prices.